*Note
Introduction
Almost all Christians accept that the traditional doctrine of eternal torment in hell has been the church’s official view since the completion of the New Testament. However, a careful analysis of the first five centuries of Christian thought among the scholars of the day disclose that it is more complex than merely containing a singular, unified view of the doctrine of future punishment. Various early church fathers certainly taught the traditional view, but several others taught either annihilation of the wicked or universal restoration. Given that the early church’s position on hell was by no means unified from the beginning, it is challenging to dogmatically assert what the church taught. However, it was not until the Middle Ages that the authorized teaching of the church concerning the fate of the wicked began. Therefore, this paper will demonstrate that the official church’s doctrine of eternal torment in hell did not become a sanctioned church doctrinal belief until The Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 AD, thereby showing that “church tradition” did not consist of only one view of hell but that the church considered several distinct ideas throughout the opening centuries of Christianity.
The Illusion of the Patristic Agreement on Hell
When most believers consider the topic of hell, they commonly appeal to church tradition to establish a unified view of hell (save for a few early church fathers). That position is assumed as eternal conscious torment (ECT). However, several of the early church fathers held contrasting beliefs that included annihilationism (otherwise known as “conditional immortality,” or CI), and universal restoration (UR). These divergent opinions were relatively common in the first five centuries after Christ and, therefore, make it challenging to conclude what the “early church” instructed. Some fathers even appear to teach multiple views at times, making deciphering what they taught even more complicated.
Universal Restoration
The most controversial view in contemporary Christianity is universal restoration (UR). This view sees the restoration of all individuals, irrespective of their faith (or lack thereof) restored to eternal life in Christ. However, proponents of UR do not necessarily see individuals merely escaping judgment as most arguments against those who advocate this view formulate. Commonly, UR supporters see the biblical imagery of judgment by fire as a “purifying” fire and that after a time of refining or experiencing varying degrees of punishment equivalent to the sins committed, the wicked are accepted into eternity with the Lord.
Many contemporary Christians believe that one who adheres to this position to be beyond the constraints of accepted orthodoxy. However, several early church fathers held to UR that were well established within the Christian community, such as Clement of Alexandria, Didymus the Blind, Diodore of Tarsus, Theodore of Mospuestia and Gregory of Nyssa. Unquestionably, the most prominent of those who favored UR is the second-century church father, Origen of Alexandria. Though he maintained some extremely speculative interpretations concerning his theology, such as the transmigration of souls and the complete restoration of all, including the devil and his demons, his opinion of UR alone was not condemned. In his book On First Principles, he asserts his belief for the wicked unmistakably when he writes, “And so, for all wicked men, and for demons too, punishment has an end, and both wicked men and demons shall be restored to their former rank.” It is essential to note that Origen was condemned for his numerous theological errors, including the complete restoration of the devil and the demons. However, his position of UR was not amongst them. As a result, countless believers today commonly remember him for his theology of UR, but that is unfortunate since he was denounced for several other reasons not related to the universal restoration of all humankind.
The fact that UR alone was not condemned until much later is evident in one of Origen’s most devoted supporters, Gregory of Nyssa. Gregory held to a general restoration of all humankind that did not include the devil and his demons, distinguishing his beliefs from Origen’s. Because Gregory was a participant in the Council of Constantinople in 381 and was venerated as a Roman Catholic Saint, it is therefore valuable evidence that UR alone is not considered heretical at this point in history. It is also significant that Gregory of Nyssa is highly esteemed in the church, yet Origen would be condemned if UR alone was considered heretical.
Annihilationism
An alternative position that was advocated by several in the early church is called “annihilationism,” or better known today as “conditional immortality” (CI). This position rejects the Platonic philosophy of the immortality of the soul primarily established from 1 Timothy 6:16 which states that God, “alone is immortal and who lives in unapproachable light, whom no one has seen or can see.” Instead, this position asserts the wicked will be annihilated on judgment day, and the righteous are granted immortality to be with the Father in heaven. Adherents to this stance see the biblical expressions of die, death, destruction, and destroy as exegetically accurate. The passages encompassing words of fire and torment that reside in the parabolic discourses and the apocalypse of Revelation should therefore be genre-specific and be interpreted as allegorical. This position sometimes gets confused with ECT because countless Christians understand phrases such as “eternal destruction” in 2 Thessalonians 1:9 and presume it means hell. However, proponents of CI believe that terms such as “eternal destruction” literally mean the body will be destroyed, and given that there is no inherently immortal soul, the wicked will therefore cease to exist. Like those who believe in UR, many Annihilationists also believe there to be a punishment after death that continues for a finite amount of time, resulting in the annihilation of the wicked. However, this is far from a consensus.
An additional challenge to deciphering who maintains CI and who maintains ECT is expressions similar to “eternal fire” (αἰώνιον πῦρ) that reside in Matthew 25:41. Numerous Christians believe this to be one of the passages in Scripture that clearly illustrates the torments of hell for the wicked. However, the adjective αἰώνιον modifies the word πῦρ and not the individual being thrown into the fire. Annihilationists believe only the fire is eternal, and it does not necessitate that whatever is thrown into it, likewise, remains eternal. In this belief, the fire characterizes God’s judgment since Scripture portrays him as a “consuming fire” (Heb. 12:29) as well as “eternal” (Isaiah 40:28). Therefore, to understand how one regards eternal punishment, one must determine if they taught that the soul is inherently immortal or whether immortality is conferred at judgment for those in Christ.
Early Church Fathers and Christian thinkers who advocate for this view include Ignatius of Antioch, Justin Martyr, Philo, Irenaeus, and the author of the Epistle of Barnabas. Ignatius, for example, composed in his Epistle to the Ephesians that God will “breathe immortality into his church.” That expression suggests that he considers man does not yet possess immortality but only through the breath of God do humans obtain eternal life, and that is only accomplished through the church. Throughout this letter, Ignatius juxtaposes “life” with “death” and frequently alludes to the gift of immortality from God. To read nothing of ECT from his writings is a significant indicator that the traditional view of hell is not a prevalent belief yet. Therefore, the theory of annihilationism appears to be an orthodox position at this time.
Eternal Conscious Torment
The traditional view of hell establishes that the wicked are cast into a literal place with fire and flames that will torment the soul/person for eternity. This position utilizes passages such as Matt. 25:41 (“The Sheep and the Goats”), and Revelation 20:10 (the Lake of Fire) as demonstrating a literal reality. For example, theologian John Walvoord asserts, “The frequent mention of fire in connection with eternal punishment supports the conclusion that this is what the Scriptures mean.” It is a view maintained by most Christians and even by those who do not particularly like the doctrine of ECT but nevertheless feel that is what Scripture clearly teaches, so they ought to maintain biblical truth regardless of their sentiments towards hell.
It is challenging, however, to decipher where the doctrine of ECT precisely originated within early Christianity. However, Tertullian of Carthage (ca. 155-220) was certainly among the earliest who promoted the idea of eternal torments of the wicked in the late second century. Tertullian was not born into a Christian home, and his background and education was in the Pagan realm of Roman law and rhetoric. When he was forty years old, he converted to Christianity and became an arduous defender of the faith that led him to embrace Montanism. He likewise taught eternal torment of the wicked with some glee when he wrote about his enemies,
How vast a spectacle then bursts upon the eye! What there excites my admiration? what my derision? Which sight gives me joy? which rouses me to exultation?–as I see so many illustrious monarchs, whose reception into the heavens was publicly announced, groaning now in the lowest darkness with great Jove himself, and those, too, who bore witness of their exultation; governors of provinces, too, who persecuted the Christian name, in fires more fierce than those with which in the days of their pride they raged against the followers of Christ.
There is no question as to what Tertullian believed concerning hell. Likewise, this theology was passed down to his student, Cyprian of Carthage, who was similarly raised in a Pagan enviroment, and then eventually to Augustine of Hippo. Each of these three views of hell enjoyed sufficient recognition among several early church fathers in the first five centuries. Nevertheless, it is Augustine who vaulted the traditional view of hell into mainstream Christian consciousness.
Augustine’s Influence on Hell
Augustine’s impact on the doctrine of hell, as well as Christianity in general, cannot be overestimated. He was a leading influence in the theological domain and characterized numerous doctrines and theologies that many believers embrace today. Augustine considers the doctrine of hell in the final three chapters of his influential work City of God. These three chapters postulate that there will be eternal punishment, with real pain for the wicked though the saved will incur a real joy. However, unlike Tertullian, Augustine does not address the gore and pain in hell; he was a thinker who devoted much time reflecting on the destiny of all humankind. He raised such questions as “If the fire is not to be immaterial, analogous to the pain of the soul, but material, burning by contact, so that bodies may be tormented in it, how can evil spirits be punished in it? For it is undoubtedly the same fire which is to serve for the punishment of men and of devils.” Augustine did not frighten individuals with the notion of hell but instead pondered the nature, effects, and reasons for the doctrine.
Similar to both Tertullian and Cyprian, Augustine was not raised a Christian but devoted several years pursuing a Pagan religion. Augustine practiced the religion of Manichaeism, which obtains its doctrine from blending numerous religious ideologies and assigned a particular emphasis on the eschatological dualism from Zoroastrianism. That dualism maintains that there will be a conflict between good and evil at the end of time, with good ultimately prevailing. Since each one of these three church fathers derived from a pagan background in childhood, education, and religious life, one can theorize that these influences are carried into their Christian faith.
Evidence of Diverse Opinions on Hell
It is evident that there were several positions on hell in the first five centuries of the Christian church because there were six theological schools that taught various concepts of the doctrine. Two taught universal restoration from the perspective of Origen (Alexandria and Caesarea), two taught universal restoration from the perspective of Gregory of Nyssa (Antioch and Edessa), one taught annihilation (Ephesus), and one taught eternal torment (Carthage). The five schools that taught UR and CI were situated geographically around the Mediterranean Sea in the east, with one (Carthage) located in North Africa to the west. The former spoke Greek as their native tongue and, accordingly, recognized the Greek context of the NT since it was in the language and culture where Scripture originated. The latter spoke Latin as their native tongue with a Roman background for their context and culture. Given that Augustine, Tertullian, and Cyprian all derived from the North African setting, had a Pagan religious background that taught eternal torment in hell, spoke Latin as their native language, and attended the only school that taught ECT, it is easy to grasp how this doctrine began its dominance in Christian thought concerning the fate of the wicked. Although ECT enters the prevailing opinion of Christianity at this time due to Augustine’s influence, it is yet an “official” doctrine of the church.
Early Creeds
Indications that ECT is not yet a church doctrine is likewise evident upon examining the early church creeds. The earliest and perhaps most recognized creed is known as The Apostles Creed. Some may suggest that this is the first reference of hell because the authors record that Jesus “descended into Hades” (descendit ad inferna). Though some English versions render “Hades” as “hell” in the common vernacular, it nonetheless fails to suggest eternal torment. However, this creed was likewise initially composed in Latin, not Greek, and created potentially at the end of the second century, if not later, and decidedly not written by the Apostles. Additionally, some believe the descent motif was inserted later than its original composition. Therefore, this creed cannot be used as evidence that hell was an authorized belief at this time.
Similarly, the Athanasian Creed has the same descendit ad inferna language in the portion on “true faith.” Additionally, the last few lines of the creed state, “and those who have done evil will enter eternal fire (αἰώνιον πῦρ).” As previously mentioned, the phrase “eternal fire” is not exclusive to ECT as its interpretive significance is claimed by proponents of both CI and UR. Comparably, none of the additional three ecumenical creeds that were written later mention hell in any sense.
Church Councils
In addition to creeds, the manner in which early Christians established their orthodox beliefs was from the Ecumenical Councils of the early church. Of all the significant councils that gathered throughout church history, some of the foremost concerns examined were decisions on general orthodox beliefs, the nature and person of Christ, and who was to be anathematized. Therefore, one would assume that the doctrine of hell would often appear, if not at least occasionally. However, hell is nowhere mentioned, even briefly, in the first three main councils, including Nicaea in 325, Constantinople in 381, and Ephesus in 431. The council in Ephesus does mention the descendit ad inferna, though, as previously established, that does not indicate ECT.
After these first three councils, the sixth-century emperor Justinian pursued Augustine’s doctrine of eternal punishment and simultaneously sought to condemn UR, a belief that he hated, in a local synod in 544 but was refused. He eventually convinced the Second Council of Constantinople, which met in 553, to anathematize Origen among other UR proponents, including Theodore of Mopsuestia and Arius. His commitment to ECT is widely documented, and though it may not be an official doctrine of the church during his time, he nonetheless did more to advance the threat of an eternal hell when he first wrote to that local Synod in 544,
If the torments of the damned will come to an end, so too will the life promised to the righteous, for both are said to be “eternal.” And if both the torments of hell and the pleasures of paradise should cease, what was the point of the Incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ? What was the purpose of his crucifixion, his death, burial, and resurrection?
Alongside his desire to advance ECT and his condemnation of UR, Justinian closed the theological schools in Alexandria, Antioch, and Ephesus that taught the complete restoration of all and annihilation of the wicked for the previous five centuries, effectively silencing opposing perspectives. Justinian continued the reign, began by Augustine, of the doctrine of eternal torment in hell that crept into Christian thinking, which now appears to be the orthodox position.
Eternal Torment in Hell’s Official Status
Conceding that the doctrine of ECT is now the dominant and preferred view within Christianity, it was still never official in writing until the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215, even though six councils passed during this period since the Second Council of Constantinople in 553. This Lateran council was created by Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), and he states his purpose of this council is “to eradicate vices and to plant virtues, to correct faults and to reform morals, to remove heresies and to strengthen faith, to settle discords and to establish peace, to get rid of oppression and to foster liberty, to induce princes and Christian people to come to the aid and succor of the holy Land.” In canon 1 of this council, the bishops transcribe what happens to those who die, “All of them will rise with their own bodies, which they now wear, so as to receive according to their deserts, whether these be good or bad; for the latter perpetual punishment with the devil, for the former eternal glory with Christ” (emphasis added). Though the primary objective of canon 1 was to introduce a generic confession of faith for orthodox Christianity, the language of perpetual punishment inserted here made the status of unending retribution authorized doctrine, as it is to this day in the Roman Catholic Church. Shortly after this council, the doctrine of ECT is likewise corroborated as official Church teaching in a letter from Pope Innocent IV (1243-1254) when he asserts, “But if anyone dies unrepentant in the state of mortal sin, he will undoubtedly be tormented forever in the fires of an everlasting hell” (Letter to the Bishop of Tusculum, 1254). Though many Christians prior to this council indeed accepted ECT, church leaders can now indicate a moment in history when it became authoritatively sanctioned.
Eternal torment in hell is now endorsed within the church and, therefore, anyone who strays from this concept jeopardizes their salvation because the church claimed that it was only through them that humanity can gain salvation. Therefore, if one were to deny the reality of hell, they could risk being anathematized and subsequently cast out of the church. It is accordingly conclusive that the doctrine of ECT is firmly entrenched in Christianity during this time and now becomes part of mainstream theology among the general Christian populace. Likewise, the belief in UR and CI began to fade into obscurity, only resurfacing occasionally, resulting in swift condemnation from most Christian leaders and churches.
The Reformers and Beyond
The traditional view of hell continued throughout the Reformation era, with countless reformers embracing the traditional doctrine. Though at odds with the church on several other doctrinal issues, Reformers such as Martin Luther examined Augustine’s works extensively and equally accepted his view of hell. That doctrine persevered up to the Enlightenment Age when it encountered further scrutiny, at least among the literate population. At this time, educated Christians began revisiting the doctrines of the early church when it taught universal restoration and annihilation. This subsequent investigation remains to this day because countless Christians do not support ECT, primarily due to both exegetical and philosophical reasons. Many believers are perhaps unaware that alternative explanations are present in Christian theology and, therefore, assume ECT to be the default belief concerning the outcome of the wicked after death, continuing the popular opinion that it has always been the church’s official view.
Conclusion
Though believers often assert that the traditional doctrine of hell possesses two thousand years of history within the church, it is evident that varying opinions were prevalent in the first five centuries. The native Greek speakers who were educated in the eastern Mediterranean region believed in both the restoration of all mankind and the annihilation of the wicked, while those in the west who were native to a Roman context and spoke Latin, adhered to the doctrine of eternal torment. Without anyone speaking or writing against universalism or annihilationism among the early church fathers, creeds, or councils, it appears the fate of the wicked was relegated to a secondary status of beliefs. Not until Augustine and Justinian in the fifth and sixth century respectively did the concept of eternal torment in hell become mainstream in the collective consciousness of Christians, who now consider it a necessity of the faith. Though hell was never a mandatory belief in the church until 1215, many embrace it with great respect because they genuinely believe the Bible communicates that the wicked will be tormented if they do not believe which, therefore, continues the traditional position of eternal torment in hell that is prevalent within orthodox Christianity today.
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Final Thoughts
Hope that wasn’t too boring or long. I am fairly proud of this paper except the part I mentioned in my opening. What are your thoughts on this issue? Does any of this surprise you?
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